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Surveying
by Dr Hab. Eng. Zbigniew Szczerbowski 1. OBJECTIVE HIGHLIGHTS
1.1. INTRODUCTION Surveying class provides basic knowledge about principles of surveying
for engineering purposes. Students develop skills during both desk studies
and in field works - measurements with surveying instruments including
measuring tapes, automatic levels, theodolites, and electronic distance
measurement equipment. Starting from the bottom - gathering and analyzing
information step by step, they become more and more experienced in
surveying process involving complex maps and projects used in engineering
practice.
The former is to master basic computations using various angle and
distance units. The latter is to understand a process of measurements with
ability to identify error sources and the procedures to minimize errors
according to ISO standards. Understanding basic tasks of measurements is
important component of the course - it supports correct actions within
measurements. Measurements are considered as acquisition of surveying
data. These raw data used in post processing are applied by students for
control calculations and after adjustment them are complete for utilization
in engineering projects: drafts, schemes, plans, maps. The last step is
acquisition of new skills: being able to use graphical symbols and prepare
graphical elaborations as plans, maps. The text is organized to follow the
mentioned sequence that - according to the author ¬- satisfying both
perception of the surveying measurement process and as meaning of basic
tasks of the course. Lectures, projects and laboratories are organized as
equal and complementary parts of the Surveying, a course preparing
students to become engineers.
1.2. SOME OUTCOMES FROM THE CHAPTERS The presented outcomes reflect expectations and basis of knowledge that
students are expected to learn at this course. The following points can be
considered as topics for exams.
1.2.1. Chapter 1: Introduction: basic terms, definitions and basic
calculations
The student will be able to:
. understand and explain the difference between plane surveying and
geodetic surveying
. illustrate and apply basic geometry to detect difference in planar
and arc distance over so-called spherical earth surface for typical
length survey projects
. describe and estimate the differences between random error,
systematic error, uncertainties and mistakes and sources of errors
in surveying
. estimate the uncertainties, errors, standard deviations, standard
errors of the mean, accuracy ratio or relative precision of a set of
measurements in terms used by the surveyor.
. determine the total error derived from individual random errors of
several measurements, so-called law of propagation of errors and
propagation of uncertainties from independent random sources
. evaluate distance, angle between lines on the basis of certain data,
calculate azimuths, areas and carried out other basic calculation
essential in engineering practice.
1.2.2. Chapter 2: Distance measurements
. explain methods of basic measurements: taping and electronic distance
measurement techniques and explain relative precision expected from the
methods
. describe construction of basic instruments used by surveyors for
measuring distances
. identify typical sources of systematic errors in taping and calculation
of errors in tape measurements (calculate the corrections for incorrect
tape length, misalignment of tape, slopes, temperature, sag).
. explain procedures of measurements of distance by optic and electronic
instruments as laser rangefinders, identify and categorize error types
for such measurements
1.2.3. Chapter 3: Leveling
. explain methods of basic measurements for determination of heights
. describe construction of basic instruments used by surveyors for
measuring distances
. explain and describe methods, procedures and equipment used in spirit
leveling,
. explain sources of errors in leveling: misleveling, curvature effect,
refraction, tides effects etc.
. determine the earth's effects: curvature, gravity changes and explain
height systems
. calculate the filed results and derive from differences in elevation from
differential leveling techniques heights. Students distribute closure
errors among all points in a loop circuit (or other closed circuit) and
they can carry out calculation results containing the appropriate
arithmetic check and adjustments
. explain system of country leveling network and regulations in leveling,
accuracy standards, ISO standards etc.
. demonstrate ability to set-up non automatic and automatic levels and
accurately read level rod
. calculate elevation differences and corrections (for curvature,
refraction etc.) in trigonometric leveling 1.2.4. Chapter 4: Angle measurements . distinguish between angles from the horizon, zenith angles, nadir angles
. explain methods of measurements of angle
. explain procedure for correct setting of the instrument over a control
point and attaining proper position of the levels
. describe sources of error in measuring angles with common instruments
. explain concept and procedures in traverse measurements
. show ability in "closing" traverses, computation of adjusted angles in a
traverse using information about angular measurements at each station,
calculate the errors coming from displacement of points in measurements
by theodolites 1.2.5. Chapter 5: Total Stations . describe construction of total station instruments
. explain methods of basic measurements by total station instruments
. identify influence of the environmental, equipment, and human factors to
the accuracy of electronic distance measurement instruments
. explain data acquisition and post processing of the data obtained from
measurements by total station instruments
1.2.6. Final exercise: Project surveying and drawing This part summarizes all abilities of students involved in the course of
surveying. For single, individual student laboratory exercises are
considered, for groups of students just field exercises. Students provide
all details in successive steps of mapmaking process. Starting from control
points mounting and traverse measurements of distances and angles, students
demonstrate abilities in field works operations. Data elaboration, as a
post processing phase, enables the control of correctness of measurements.
After adjustment and data acquisition (points with adjusted x,y,z,
coordinates) students demonstrate abilities in mapmaking process. In last
step a student will demonstrate the usage of situational and contour map
for a simple exercise: creation of profile lines, area calculations etc.
. measure and angles (laboratory) and evaluate the results of direct and
reverse measurements of angles in a closed traverse
. adjust angles to ensure angular closure (weighted adjustments will be
presented - see lab supplement).
. calculate the azimuths of all lines in a traverse based on adjusted
interior or deflection angles
. calculate the bearings of all lines in a traverse based on adjusted
interior or deflection angles
. explain the relationship between the azimuth of a line AB and the back
azimuth of the same line
. apply basic rules for adding ( or subtracting ) interior angles to
back azimuths to have a consistent approach to calculate all azimuths
of a traverse
. determine latitudes and departures for all segments of a closed loop
traverse, check for closure error, and express the results in the form
of the standard accuracy ratio, i.e. accuracy ratio, develop a
spreadsheet program to automatically adjust angles and calculate
azimuths of all lines in a closed traverse and calculate closure error
using latitudes and departures (laboratory and outside the classroom
time)
. evaluate the adequacy of a survey in meeting standards for typical
urban construction survey projects
. expand the spreadsheet program to use standard adjustment procedures,
the compass rule
. to balance latitudes and departures and calculate the "inversed"
distance and azimuth for each of the original lines of the traverse
. calculate coordinates of each node of a network
. apply the coordinate method of area computation for any closed polygon
(traverse)
. determine the minimum level of precision needed in angular
measurements to achieve comparable accuracy of 1/3,000; 1/5,000 or
1/10,000
. explain how independent random errors from linear measurements would
be combined with independent random errors from angular measurements
to obtain the total expected error from these sources
. compute coordinates of points using distance and angular measurements
from a Total Station position that is not over a control point
(triangulation and resection)
. set out construction points based on measured angles and distances.
The next part of presented elaboration deals with specified elements of
surveying measurements - theoretical and practical aspects.
2. TYPES OF SURVEYS
2.1. INTRODUCTION: BASIC TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CALCULATIONS What is surveying? Who needs it? Certainly it is an old branch utilized
in