Hlecture10.doc - University of North Florida

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Bruce Fortado
MAN 4301
University of North Florida

An Instructional System is composed of (1) Problem Diagnosis (Need Analysis
or Skills Gapping), (2) Program Design, (3) Program Delivery, and (4)
Program Evaluation.
The systems approach gives important impetus to the establishment of
objectives and evaluation criteria. A small pilot test may be conducted to
validate the program before the program is fully implemented.
Training/development is never a finished product. There are always
continued revisions to meet goals, situations change, and goals also
change. It should be kept in mind that there may be a "sleeper effect"
where it takes time for results to show up back on the job. One also does
not know how long the impact will last. In other words, one should check
to see if the impact wanes over time or if it endures. Interest in
training and development has risen due to the need for a wider array of
skills, awareness of the entire production system, the need to be
responsive to mishaps, changing customer needs, interest in building
clusters of internal experts to manage teams, more vocal concern over
employment security, career growth, and retraining costs.

An Institutional System

Assessment Phase Training & Development Phase
Evaluation Phase






















Note: There are many other instructional-system models for military,
business and educational systems. Some of the components of this model were
suggested by other systems. Taken from I. L. Goldstein (1986). Improving
the Effectiveness of Performance Appraisal, in Perpectives on Personnel/
Human Resource Management, H. G. Heneman III and D. P. Schwab (eds.), 212-
218. Homewood, IL: Irwin.



HR Training and Development Methods


Job Instruction = The trainer explains the job and executes the tasks to
demonstrate how it should be done. The trainee tries to replicate the
methods, and receives feedback from the trainer.

Coaching = On a day-to-day basis the trainer/manager notes what the
employee is doing properly and improperly. Ideally, the trainer will
provide advice on how the trainee can do his/her job more easily and
effectively. Some supervisors, however, are reluctant to challenge or
criticize.

Mentoring = A figure who is often 8 to 15 years older, and 2 or 3 levels
above provides career advice, hints on how to tackle problems, and
demonstrates interpersonal/political skills by example. The trainee often
picks up the mentor's friends and enemies. There may be some "guilt by
association." The process should be monitored so a young person is not
exploited (the elder figure taking credit for his/her ideas, etc.).

Apprenticeship = Normally seen in craft positions (plumbers, carpenters,
electricians, linemen, etc.). It normally lasts 2 to 5 years (the average
being four years). It primarily involves on the job training under the
direction of an experienced person. It also frequently has a classroom
component. The skilled workmen may want to limit the number of new
craftsmen to further their own interests. A client may be charged the
craftsman's rate despite the fact a trainee did some of the work.

Business (Management) Games = Simulations of what it is like to make top
management decisions. When I was in college, I took a course that centered
around a software package that simulated an industry with four to six
competitors. On a weekly basis thirty decisions had to be submitted
(product price, quantities to be manufactured, wage rates, staffing levels,
distribution by region, advertising, inventory levels, debt levels, the
amount of stock outstanding, production capacity, etc.). Ideally, this
would show students how all the varied functions fit together. Each
organization was operated by a team of five to six students. These
students were generally selected from different disciplinary backgrounds.
The students' grades were determined by their finish (stock price,
dividends, etc.). Board meetings were held with students from other
industries so the team could explain their strategy and get new ideas.
Political fights did break out in the team discussions due to the
composition of the groups and the stakes involved. Some students attempted
to spy on other groups. A key question is where does the economic
information within the simulation come from. Does it reflect current
realities, or does it foster outdated thinking?

Case Studies = Normally these are in-depth descriptions (5 to 30 pages) of
the experiences of disguised organizations. The trainees are able to see
the experiences of numerous managers in a short period of time. Hopefully,
the trainees will not repeat the same mistakes as the characters in the
case. The case, however, is pre-gathered information. Therefore, the
trainees do not practice researching problems. They do normally try to
analyze the given information and pose solutions. They never see an actual
implementation, nor have a chance to enact revisions. Essentially, the
middle stages of handling problems are stressed, while the initial and
final steps are left out. If groups analyze cases, and grades are at
stake, aspects such as social loafing and political infighting may emerge.

Discussion Method (Incident Method) = Short controversial scenarios (one to
three pages), like "An Exam for Mrs. Smith," are used to spark discussion.
There are no "right answers." One can learn from the experiences of
others, and should come to better appreciate others' views. The trainee
should also develop his/her analytic skills and management style. Some
people who long for exact answers dislike the disorganized and open-ended
nature of these discussions. This method can only be effectively carried
out in small groups. The nature of the feedback needs to be monitored
("Well, in my company we had a different experience ..." versus "No, you
are wrong. That would never work.")

In-basket Exercises = The trainee is given a stack of memos, phone messages
and letters. In the upcoming time frame (one week), the person has too
much to do. Therefore, the problems must be prioritized. Time management
must be exercised. In some cases, responses must be drafted. If the
material is really job related, this can be a very useful developmental
tool.

Sensitivity Training (T-groups) = This method is intended to change
interpersonal relationships. A series of somewhat bizarre exercises will
be carried out. The trainee will then discuss the experiences with the
other participants (group analysis). Later, the trainee will put his/her
reflections in writing (self analysis). These multiple analytic processes
are intended to give the trainees greater insight into the behavior of
others and themselves. Ideally, it will build greater understanding and
tolerance. People should be able to develop new ways of interacting.
Attitudes are quite likely to change. One must beware the damage that can
be done by inappropriate feedback. When people bare their innermost
thoughts, they can be really hurt if a person says "That's stupid," or the
like. This technique can only be properly carried out in small group. It
is obviously not being properly done if people rush from exercise to
exercise with little group analysis or personal reflection. A tradeoff
exists. If you do the exercises with people from your workplace, they will
have greater difficulty opening up. Yet, changes are more likely to
transfer back to work. Conversely, if one's superior does not become more
"sensitive," it is unlikely any of that person's subordinates will sustain
much of the changed behavior they initially display.

Lecture = The most common training method. This is an economical way to
convey information to large numbers of trainees with a small number of
trainers. The amount of content for the time consumed is generally very
high. Normally, this consists of a simple one-way presentation of
information. The lack of social interaction and individualized material is
a drawback. The extensive usage of lectures sometimes results in boredom.
The lack of reinforcement and the ability to practice can pose problems in
skill training.

Programmed Instruction (Auto Instructional Techniques) = Modules like the
SRA reading program and computer software packages (CDs, Web sites,
Learning Portals, etc.) that promote self paced learning. Ideally, this
method will be challenging and individualized. Computers and modules do
not get impatient. Travel time to human presentations is eliminated.
Advocates assert the same amount of material can be learned in one-third
the time. The immediate feedback the employee can receive from self tests,
and the branching the software programs provide to locate the person's
level and build him/her up from there are a plus. Unfortunately, trainees
may cheat on the self tests. Why? They may want to impress or keep up
with peers in classroom situations. The lack of social interaction raises
questions about whether critical interpersonal skills are being neglected.


Role Playing = Simulations where the trainees learn by doing. They carry
out their prescribed roles and in the process develop their interpersonal
skills. I use this method in the negotiations classes I teach. It is far
more interesting and involving than a simple lecture format. Some