PPII_2.doc

Positive Psychological Interventions. Well-being and intentional
activity.
?ukasz Kaczmarek Summary
Effectively pursuing happiness has become one of the main concerns
for lay people, professionals (e.g., therapists, educators, researchers),
and governments concerned with happiness among citizens at national levels.
Positive psychology coined the term "positive interventions" (a.k.a.
happiness interventions) to reactivate, integrate and stimulate research
into happiness-increasing methods. These new methods will likely complement
the classic forms of psychological help aimed at reducing various forms of
suffering. Both types of interventions are essential for the promotion of
full mental health conceptualized as the absence of mental disorders (ill-
being) and the presence of well-being. The problems presented in this book
also correspond with the pioneering works by Polish authors such as
Kazimierz D?browski, Kazimierz Obuchowski, Janusz Czapi?ski, W?adys?aw
Tatarkiewicz. Clinical research on positive interventions is important for
the development of positive psychology as a scientific field, because
recent bibliometric analyses have revealed that research in positive
psychology is scattered and has not yet achieved the main aims of the
positive psychology movement.
Positive psychological interventions (PPIs) can be defined as: a)
initiated by a psychologist or used as part of self-help, b) theoretically
and empirically justified activities that c) promote positive emotions,
beliefs and actions that lead to increased happiness d) regardless of
initial levels of happiness e) in healthy subjects but can also be
effective in clinical groups. Adequate use of positive interventions
requires the adoption of a specific theory of happiness, determining which
intervention effects can be expected. In the philosophical tradition,
happiness has been conceptualized as an extraordinarily good event
(fortune), an intense positive emotion, eudaimonia (welfare resulting from
the possession of moral goods), or satisfaction with life as a whole.
Psychological theories regarding the structure of happiness have covered
the hedonic approach, eudaimonic, or a combination of both - hedonic-
eudaimonic hybrid theories. Each of these theories provides psychometric
tools that can be used in research on the effectiveness of positive
intervention.
Conducting happiness interventions is likely to succeed only to the
extent to which happiness depends on intentional activity. Twins studies
have shown that one-third of happiness is determined by genetic influences
which provide an individual happiness set-point. Only about 10% is
determined by circumstances. However, happiness to a large extent depends
on intentional, planned actions. For instance, individuals can
intentionally regulate positive emotions or make deliberate efforts to
counter hedonic adaptation processes. PPIs' efficacy depends on the person-
activity fit (intervention type, frequency, etc.). Furthermore, behavior
change models can be used to increase motivation towards successful
initiation and completion of PPIs.
The effects of PPIs result from several psychological processes. PPIs'
active ingredients involve enhancing positive emotions (e.g. personal
savoring or sharing a positive event and feeling with other individuals)
and facilitating prosocial behaviors (kindness, gratitude, and
forgiveness). Each of these elements has been used in interventions tested
in efficacy trials. Meta-analytical studies regarding efficacy have
revealed that PPIs are successful in enhancing subjective well-being,
psychological well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms. Yet, the
effect sizes are at best moderate. The efficacy of PPIs depends on
intervention duration, format and the occurrence of psychosocial problems
in the recipients. Furthermore, PPIs have demonstrated limited
effectiveness tested in natural settings and suffer from high levels of
participant attrition. PPIs can be administered successfully via personal
contact with the psychologist (in individual or group settings) or via
online resources.
For practical and ethical reasons, it is imperative to establish
justification for promotion of happiness interventions, i.e. why should
positive interventions be promoted? It is also essential to scrutinize
risks that can be attributed to the promotion of happiness interventions,
i.e. what are the cons for happiness promotion? The main argument for PPI
promotion is that happiness is valued by most people and happiness also
facilitates the pursuit of other valuable goals such as fulfilling social
relationships or health (thus happiness promotion can be regarded as a
special case of health promotion). As for the cons, happiness promotion can
be disturbing for individuals who do not value happiness, overvalue
happiness or endorse maximizing decision-making strategies. Furthermore,
the highest levels of happiness and too quick increases in happiness can
have some negative outcomes, (e.g., the Goldilocks effect).
The penultimate chapter of this book provides a description of a
research program aimed at examining personality and situational conditions
for self-initiated PPIs. The model used in this project extends the theory
of planned behavior to account for phenomena relevant for the PPIs. It
proved to be a viable framework that accounts for intentions and behaviors
resulting from personality influences (e.g., curiosity), situational
factors (e.g., provided informational support) and person-activity fit
(e.g., gratitude letters vs gratitude journaling).
Further studies might develop interventions focused on other character
strengths (e.g. humility), seek new active ingredients, new combinations of
PPIs, or develop interventions that target recipients with specific
problems or potentials. Moreover, further studies might address theoretical
and methodological problems, i.e. covering more eudaimonic perspectives,
provide longer follow-ups, and use state-of-the-art methods for measuring
positive experience. Finally, more research is need on the dark side of
PPIs that would examine negative consequences of PPIs and contexts when
they fail to provide benefits to recipients.
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