Terrestrial Land Mobile Radiowave Propagation - ITU

International Telecommunication Union [pic]
HANDBOOK
Terrestrial land mobile radiowave propagation
in the VHF/UHF bands Radiocommunication Bureau © ITU 2002 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, by any
means whatsoever, without the prior written permission of ITU. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page FOREWORD vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Purpose 1 1.2 How to use this Handbook 1 1.3 Applicable ITU-R texts 2 CHAPTER 2 - APPLICATIONS TO LAND MOBILE RADIO SYSTEMS 5 2.1 General network architecture 5 2.2 Private mobile radio (dispatch) systems 7 2.3 Public radio paging networks 9 2.4 Public cordless telephony systems 10 2.5 Public cellular mobile telephony systems 12 2.6 Useful references 15 CHAPTER 3 - FUNDAMENTAL PROPAGATION PRINCIPLES 17 3.1 Propagation mechanisms 17 3.1.1 Free space 17 3.1.2 Reflections 17 3.1.3 Reflection from ground 18 3.1.4 Reflection from buildings 18 3.1.5 Diffraction 19 3.1.6 Refraction 20 3.2 Shadowing and rapid fading 20 3.2.1 Shadowing 20 3.2.2 Rapid fading 21 3.3 The statistics of location variability 21 3.4 References 23 Page CHAPTER 4 - MODELLING TECHNIQUES FOR PROPAGATION PREDICTION
25 4.1 Generalized point-to-area models 25 4.1.1 Okumura and Hata models 26 4.1.2 Testing and tuning of generalized empirical point-to-area models
28 4.2 Methods using terrain and ground cover information 33 4.3 Ray tracing, GTD-UTD, parabolic and integral equation methods
35 4.3.1 Ray tracing and geometric theory of diffraction (GTD) - uniform
theory of diffraction (UTD) methods 35 4.3.2 Parabolic equation (PE) methods 36 4.3.3 Integral equation (IE) methods 36 4.4 Diffraction modelling 37 4.4.1 Summary of earlier methods, spherical Earth, knife-edge, and cylinder
models 37 4.4.2 Recommendation ITU-R P.526 44 4.5 Propagation model considerations 45 4.5.1 System planning 47 4.5.2 Interference assessment and spectrum management 47 4.5.3 Comparison of measurements and predictions 48 4.6 References 48 CHAPTER 5 - TERRAIN DATABASES (AVAILABILITY AND USE) 51 5.1 Terrain height 51 5.2 Ground cover 53 5.3 Use of databases in available modelling and planning methods
55 5.3.1 Area metaphor 56 5.3.2 Profile considerations 56 5.4 References 57 CHAPTER 6 - PROPAGATION WITHIN AND INTO BUILDINGS AND
UNDERGROUND 59 6.1 Site-specific approaches 59 Page 6.2 Site-general approaches 60 6.3 Combined (indoor-outdoor and outdoor-indoor) propagation
63 6.4 References 64 CHAPTER 7 - ANTENNA CONSIDERATIONS 67 7.1 Emission of radiowaves 67 7.2 Reference isotropic radiator and dipole antenna 68 7.3 Antenna characteristics 70 7.4 Base station antennas 71 7.5 Mobile station antennas 72 7.6 Impact of the land mobile environment 72 7.6.1 Depolarization phenomena in the land mobile environment 72 7.6.2 Antenna height gain: base and mobile 73 7.6.3 Correlation/space diversity 74 7.6.4 Realizable antenna gain of the vehicular mobile station 74 7.6.5 Body loss 74 7.7 References 75 CHAPTER 8 - ENVIRONMENTAL NOISE 77 8.1 Radio system performance factors 77 8.2 Noise terms and background 77 8.2.1 Noise components 77 8.2.2 Noise power and noise temperature 77 8.2.3 Noise factor 78 8.2.4 Noise factor for cascaded components 79 8.2.5 Noise factor for receiving systems 81 8.3 Antenna noise figure information in Recommendation ITU-R P.372
83 8.4 Noise measurements for specific applications 85 8.5 References 85 CHAPTER 9 - CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIGITAL MODULATION
SCHEMES 87 9.1 Characterization in time domain 87 9.2 Characterization in frequency domain 88 9.3 Characterization in angular domain and Doppler spectra 89 9.4 WSSUS channels 89 Page 9.5 Modelling the wideband channel 90 9.5.1 Site-specific channel models 90 9.5.2 Site general channel models for system simulation 90 9.6 References 92 BIBLIOGRAPHY 93 ITU-R texts 93 Books 93 Data-sets, online 93 Monographs and reports 94 Conference and journal papers 94 APPENDIX A - PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 101 A.1 Example of testing and tuning generalized empirical point-to-area
models (see also § 4.1.2) 101 A.1.1 Model testing (see also § 4.1.2.2) 101 A.1.2 Choosing the best model (see also § 4.1.2.2) 103 A.1.3 Model tuning (see also § 4.1.2.3) 103 APPENDIX B - UNIT CONVERSIONS 105 B.1 Propagation losses versus field strength 105 B.2 Decibel units and logarithmic scale 105 B.3 Unit conversions 107 B.4 References 107 FOREWORD
Much of modern life, in developing and developed countries, is predicated
on the expectation that radiocommunication will be available, mobile, and
immediate. Telecommunication agencies and businesses around the world have
to be able to establish and maintain mobile communication infrastructure
that will meet the quality of communication required. An understanding of the propagation mechanisms through natural and man-made
environments is a basic element of the culture of a telecommunications
engineer. That knowledge is needed in planning and optimizing the technical
support for mobile radiocommunications to meet customer needs. Natural
variability, both spatial and temporal, and the effects of terrain and
topography cannot be controlled but they can be accommodated provided that
the effect they have on systems is known. In the case of terrestrial land mobile services, recent years have seen an
extraordinary increase in customer demand and use. In establishing
terrestrial mobile networks many technical innovations have been developed,
one of these being an increase in the understanding of radiowave
propagation. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) is dedicated
to providing standard methods (Recommendations) for calculating the
performance of radio systems within a variable environment. This ITU-R
Handbook gives the technical basis for predicting the radio propagation in
point-to-point, point-to-area, and point-to-multipoint mobile networks. The
Handbook focuses on the use of ITU-R Recommendations for the regulating,
planning, engineering and deployment of land mobile services. The reader is
encouraged to seek further information from the ITU-R
(http://www.itu.int/ITU-R). David G. Cole
Chairman, Radiocommunication Study Group 3,
Radiowave Propagation ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The material in this Handbook was developed by a group of participants in
ITU-R Working Party 3K. The Rapporteur for this work wishes to thank the
following individuals who made substantial contributions to the Handbook:
Mr. Richard Biby, United States of America
Mr. Eldon J. Haakinson, United States of America
Dr. Thomas Kürner, Germany
Mr. Paul McKenna, United States of America
Dr. Art?ras Medei?is, Lithuania
Mr. Ian Pullen, United Kingdom
Prof. Mauro Soares de Assis, Brazil
Dr. James Whitteker, Canada In addition, the Rapporteur wishes to thank Mr. Eldon J. Haakinson and Mr.
Rainer Großkopf in their capacities as successive Chairmen of Working Party
3K for their support and encouragement. Thomas N. Rubinstein
Rapporteur CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this Handbook is to introduce the engineer or network
designer who has little or no experience in radiowave propagation to those
concepts that are necessary to understand how radiowave propagation
principles are applied to the design of terrestrial land mobile radio
systems. 1.2 How to use this Handbook
The primary intended audience for this Handbook is users of ITU-R
electromagnetic propagation Recommendations who require additional
information concerning the background and application of the methods found
in these Recommendations, part