raleigh's first expedition to guyana

The Guyana Story
(From Earliest Times to Independence)
By Dr. Odeen Ishmael
© 2005 - Odeen Ishmael
Contents
THE EARLY AMERINDIAN SETTLEMENTS 5
THE LATER AMERINDIAN SETTLEMENTS 6
MAIN AMERINDIAN GROUPS UP TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 8
THE FATE OF OTHER AMERINDIAN GROUPS 11
THE ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS IN THE GUYANA REGION 13
RALEIGH'S FIRST EXPEDITION TO GUYANA 15
RALEIGH'S SECOND EXPEDITION TO GUYANA 16
EARLY DUTCH EXPLORATION 17
EARLY DUTCH SETTLEMENTS 18
THE DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY 20
TREATY OF MUNSTER 22
THE BEGINNING OF THE COLONY OF BERBICE 24
A NEW CHARTER FOR BERBICE 26
EXTENT OF DUTCH SETTLEMENT 27
INVASIONS OF GUYANA (1665-1712) 29
THE BERBICE-SURINAME BOUNDARY 31
DUTCH PROGRESS 33
THE ARRIVAL OF LAURENS STORM VAN GRAVESANDE 35
DUTCH PROGRESS IN MAZARUNI AND CUYUNI 36
SPANISH RAIDS ON DUTCH TERRITORY (1758-1768) 39
FURTHER PROBLEMS WITH THE SPANIARDS 40
RELIGION AMONG THE DUTCH IN GUYANA 42
ESTABLISHMENT OF DEMERARA 45
THE SLAVE TRADE 46
SLAVERY ON THE PLANTATION 48
THE WORK ON THE PLANTATION 50
RELIGION OF THE SLAVES 52
DUTCH CONTROL OF ESSEQUIBO 54
THE BEGINNING OF THE BERBICE SLAVE REBELLION 55
THE COLLAPSE OF THE REBELLION 57
SPANISH IDEAS OF A WESTERN FRONTIER 60
GUYANA UNDER BRITISH, FRENCH AND DUTCH (1781-1783) 62
FROM DUTCH TO BRITISH HANDS (1783-1803) 63
BERBICE AT THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 65
GROWTH OF GEORGETOWN 66
THE BEGINNING OF BRITISH GUIANA 68
CONTROL OF ESSEQUIBO AFTER 1750 70
EARLY BRITISH ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS 71
AMERINDIAN LOYALTY TO THE BRITISH 72
THE ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENT IN BRITISH GUIANA 74
RUMOURS OF FREEDOM 75
THE DEMERARA SLAVE UPRISING 76
THE END OF SLAVERY 78
DAMON AND THE ESSEQUIBO REBELLION 80
THE APPRENTICESHIP PERIOD 82
THE ARRIVAL OF THE PORTUGUESE 84
CONSEQUENCES OF THE LABOUR SHORTAGE 86
WEST INDIAN AND AFRICAN MIGRATION TO GUYANA 88
THE ARRIVAL OF THE EAST INDIANS 89
NEW INDIAN IMMIGRATION AFTER 1845 91
THE BEGINNING OF THE GUYANA-VENEZUELA BORDER DISPUTE 92
THE GUYANA-SURINAME BORDER (1831-1899) 94
THE VILLAGE MOVEMENT 95
THE ARRIVAL OF THE CHINESE 97
THE CHINESE ON THE PLANTATIONS 99
THE WORK OF O TYE KIM 101
THE "ANGEL GABRIEL" RIOTS OF 1856 102
THE GROWTH OF EDUCATION BEFORE 1840 103
EXPANSION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION (1844-1876) 105
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CREOLESE LANGUAGE 106
HARDSHIPS FACED BY THE INDIANS 107
THE DES VOEUX LETTER 109
RIOT AT DEVONSHIRE CASTLE 110
INDIAN SETTLEMENTS 112
THE CENT BREAD RIOTS 113
DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT 115
RESISTANCE TO TAXATION AT FRIENDSHIP 117
BUILDING THE SEA DEFENCE AND DRAINAGE SYSTEM 118
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 119
THE SURVEYS OF BROWN AND SAWKINS 121
FURTHER CLAIMS BY VENEZUELA (1876-1890) 122
THE EARLY PERIOD OF ROAD AND RAILWAY TRANSPORT 125
ESTABLISHMENT OF A MONEY SYSTEM 128
THE BEGINNING OF THE GOLD INDUSTRY 129
GROWTH OF GEORGETOWN 131
EARLY ADMINISTRATION OF NEW AMSTERDAM 133
THE BEGINNING OF THE RICE INDUSTRY 134
THE IMMIGRATION ORDINANCE OF 1891 135
POLITICAL CHANGES (1891-1917) 137
INDIAN SETTLEMENTS 139
EARLY EDUCATION OF INDIANS 141
EFFORTS OF CHRISTIAN CHURCHES TO CONVERT INDIANS 142
AMERICAN INTERVENTION IN THE GUYANA-VENEZUELA BORDER DISPUTE 144
ARBITRATION AGREEMENT BETWEEN GUYANA AND VENEZUELA 146
THE ARBITRAL AWARD 148
MARKING THE GUYANA-VENEZUELA BOUNDARY 150
THE GUYANA-SURINAME BOUNDARY (1840-1926) 152
DISTURBANCES AT PLANTATION FRIENDS 154
SUGAR WORKERS' STRIKES IN 1905 155
THE 1905 RIOTS 156
LABOUR UNREST (1906-1910) 158
THE LUSIGNAN RIOT IN 1912 159
THE ROSE HALL DISTURBANCES IN 1913 160
WORKERS' PROTESTS IN 1917 162
HUBERT NATHANIEL CRITCHLOW: THE EARLY YEARS 163
CRITCHLOW IN THE WORKERS' STRUGGLE 164
GANDHI AND THE IMMIGRATION PROPOSALS 166
CONTINUING EFFORTS TO REVIVE INDIAN IMMIGRATION 168
THE RUIMVELDT SHOOTING IN 1924 170
THE START OF THE BAUXITE INDUSTRY 172
THE BOUNDARY WITH SURINAME: THE TRI-JUNCTION POINT 174
THE BOUNDARY WITH SURINAME: THE DRAFT TREATY 175
THE MARITIME BOUNDARY WITH SURINAME 177
NEW CONSTITUTION OF 1928 179
THE BEGINNING OF THE MPCA 181
THE LEONORA DISTURBANCES 182
THE MOYNE COMMISSION 184
THE EARLY YEARS OF AVIATION 186
THE WORLD'S MOST FAMOUS STAMP 187
GUYANA DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR 188
THE BOOKERS EMPIRE 190
DR. GIGLIOLI AND THE FIGHT AGAINST MALARIA 191
CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES (1941-1947) 194
CHEDDI JAGAN 'S ENTRY INTO POLITICS 196
THE POLITICAL AFFAIRS COMMITTEE 198
THE PAC AND THE 1947 ELECTIONS 200
THE FORMATION OF THE GIWU 203
THE ENMORE MARTYRS 205
THE VENN COMMISSION 207
SOME EVENTS OF 1947-1949 209
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PPP 212
APPOINTMENT OF THE WADDINGTON COMMISSION 215
THE REPORT OF THE WADDINGTON COMMISSION 217
THE PPP IN 1951-1952 219
THE DUNCE MOTION 221
THE ELECTION CAMPAIGN IN 1953 223
THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 1953 225
THE PPP GOVERNMENT OF 1953 227
THE OVERTHROW OF THE PPP GOVERNMENT IN 1953 229
THE BRITISH "CASE" FOR SUSPENDING THE CONSTITUTION 231
THE PPP REBUTTAL OF THE BRITISH ACCUSATIONS 233
AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT IN GUYANA IN 1953 235
VISIT BY JAGAN AND BURNHAM TO ENGLAND AND INDIA -- 1953 237
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INTERIM GOVERNMENT 239
THE SPLIT IN THE TUC 241
THE ROBERTSON COMMISSION 242
REPRESSION AGAINST THE PPP - 1953-1955 243
THE SPLIT IN THE PPP 245
THE AFTERMATH OF THE SPLIT 247
THE ALL-PARTY CONFERENCES 249
FAILURE OF THE INTERIM GOVERNMENT 251
THE SHOOTING AT SKELDON, 1957 252
THE "ULTRA-LEFTIST" SPLIT - 1956 253
THE 1957 GENERAL ELECTION 255
THE PROGRAMME OF THE NEW PPP GOVERNMENT 257
THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMMITTEE, 1958 259
THE ORGANISATION OF THE PNC 260
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED FORCE 261
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ISSUES (1958-61) 263
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE (1960) 265
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN 1959-60 266
THE ELECTIONS IN 1961 267
BREWING ANTI-PPP CHALLENGES IN 1961 270
THE JAGAN-KENNEDY MEETING 271
THE 1962 BUDGET 273
STREET PROTESTS BY THE OPPOSITION 275
THE DISTURBANCES 277
THE WYNN-PARRY COMMISSION 279
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE IN 1962 281
ATTEMPTS TO REACH A POLITICAL SOLUTION IN 1963 283
THE 80-DAY STRIKE 285
ANTI-GOVERNMENT VIOLENCE IN 1963 288
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE IN 1963 291
PROTESTS AGAINST THE SANDYS' "FORMULA" 294
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN 1963 296
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA 298
RENEWAL OF VENEZUELAN CLAIM TO ESSEQUIBO 300
THE OUTBREAK OF RACIAL DISTURBANCES IN 1964 302
THE ESCALATION OF THE RACIAL DISTURBANCES 304
MEDIATION BY GHANA AND TRINIDAD IN 1964 307
JAGAN'S COALITION PROPOSALS 309
BETRAYAL BY THE BRITISH LABOUR PARTY GOVERNMENT 311
THE 1964 ELECTION CAMPAIGN 313
THE DECEMBER 1964 ELECTIONS 316
THE PNC-UF COALITION GOVERNMENT IN CONTROL 318
THE ICJ MISSION 321
EMERGENCY RULE IN 1965 323
THE 1965 INDEPENDENCE CONFERENCE 326
GOVERNMENT-OPPOSITION DISCUSSIONS ON THE BORDER ISSUE 328
THE GENEVA AGREEMENT 330
INDEPENDENCE GRANTED TO GUYANA 332
GENERAL REFERENCES 334
THE EARLY AMERINDIAN SETTLEMENTS
It is generally believed that Guyana's first inhabitants, the Amerindians,
originally entered the territory of what is now known as Guyana about
11,000 years ago. Initially they lived on the low, swampy coastland region. Much of the coastal plain was built up by alluvial deposits from the rising
Atlantic Ocean during the period ranging from 17,000 to 6,000 years ago.
Large rivers which were formed also brought huge deposits of silt from the
conti-nental interior and dumped them into the ocean. These silt deposits
formed part of the alluvium which helped to create the coastal plain. There
were periods when the rising waters stabilised allowing mangrove forests to
develop. As the waters rose at a later time, these forests were destroyed
and were covered over with silt on which new forests grew during different
periods. As the coastland built up, the sea retreated but left behind a
series of parallel sand and shell beaches, now known as sand reefs, up to
about 10 miles inland.
West of the Essequibo River, large pegasse (or peat) swamps were formed.
Archaeological surveys in the region have unearthed evidence to show that
the first people of Guyana formed settlements around some of these large
pegasse swamps.
Research by the Guyanese anthropologist, Dennis Williams, shows that while
the earliest Guyanese were hunters, about 7000 years ago they graduated to
become hunter-gatherers. Some of these hunter-gatherers used a variety of
plants to produce oils, fibres and dyes. These activities were the early
horticultural experiments of the early inhabitants. Archaeological studies
reveal that a group of these people occupied Barabina Hill near to Mabaruma
around that period.
In the North-West District and the Pomeroon where they were firmly
established as fish, turtle, snail and crab catchers, their settlements
were more per-manent, but in the interior areas they moved their campsites
from time to time. Some of these settlements were in the Mazaruni basin,
the Pakaraima highlands, the Rupununi and the Berbice River.
The tools of the hunter-gatherers included bedrock grinding surfaces which
were used to make polished stone tools, bark beaters of chipped stone (used
for extracting bark cloth), projectile points, chisels, axes, and adzes.
These tools, no doubt, helped in creating the dug out canoe. Chipped quartz
produced small tools such as scrapers and gouges. Bone was used for making
awls, fish hooks and personal ornaments. Basketry skills were also
developed and were used in the manufacture of fish traps and food
containers.
The subsistence systems varied from region to region. In the south-west
Rupununi, the hunter-